Nobel for work on ‘click chemistry’

Nobel for work on ‘click chemistry’

Scientists Carolyn R. Bertozzi, Morten Meldal and K. Barry Sharpless won the 2022 Nobel Prize in Chemistry on Wednesday for discovering reactions that let molecules snap together to create desired compounds and that offer insight into cell biology.

• Americans Ms. Bertozzi and Mr. Sharpless, together with Denmark’s Mr. Meldal, were honored “for the development of click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry”.
• Mr. Sharpless joins an elite band of scientists who have won two Nobel prizes. The other individuals are John Bardeen who won the Physics prize twice, Marie Curie, who won Physics and Chemistry, Linus Pauling who won Chemistry and Peace and Frederick Sanger who won the Chemistry prize twice.

In chemical synthesis, “click” chemistry is a class of biocompatible small molecule reactions commonly used in bioconjugation, allowing the joining of substrates of choice with specific biomolecules. Click chemistry is not a single specific reaction, but describes a way of generating products that follow examples in nature, which also generates substances by joining small modular units.

For a reaction to be considered a click reaction, it must satisfy certain characteristics:

• modularity
• insensitivity to solvent parameters
• high chemical yields
• insensitivity towards oxygen and water
• regiospecificity and stereospecificity
• a large thermodynamic driving force (>20 kcal/mol) to favor a reaction with a single reaction product. A distinct exothermic reaction makes a reactant “spring-loaded.”

The process would preferably:

• have simple reaction conditions
• use readily available starting materials and reagents
• use no solvent or use a solvent that is benign or easily removed (preferably water)
• provide simple product isolation by non-chromatographic methods (crystallisation or distillation)
• have high atom economy.

Mars Orbiter craft non-recoverable

The Indian Space Research Organisation confirmed that the Mars Orbiter craft has lost communication with ground station, it’s non-recoverable and the Mangalyaan mission has attained end-of-life. The ISRO gave an update on the Mars Orbiter Mission and the national meet held on 27 September 2022 to commemorate the MOM, on the event of completion of its eight years in the Martian orbit.

What

1. It was discussed that despite being designed for a life-span of six months as a technology demonstrator, the MOM has lived for about eight years in the Martian orbit with a gamut of significant scientific results on Mars as well as on the Solar corona, before losing communication with the ground station, as a result of a long eclipse in April 2022, the national space agency said.
2. During the national meet, ISRO deliberated that the propellant must have been exhausted, and therefore, the “desired altitude pointing” could not be achieved for sustained power generation.
3. It was declared that the spacecraft is non-recoverable, and attained its end-of-life”, an ISRO statement said.
4. The mission will be ever-regarded as a remarkable technological and scientific feat in the history of planetary exploration.

Flashback

1. MOM was launched on 5 November 2013, and after completing 300 days of interplanetary journey, it was inserted to the Martian orbit on 24 September 2014.
2. Equipped with a five scientific payloads onboard, during these eight years, the mission has gifted significant scientific understanding on the Martian surface features, morphology, as well as the Martian atmosphere and exosphere.

AUKUS alliance

China withdrew a draft resolution against the AUKUS alliance at the general conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna due to lack of majority support.

• The resolution argued AUKUS initiative violated the responsibilities of Australia, the UK and the US under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
• India’s deft diplomacy to ensure that the draft resolution did not get majority support, was deeply appreciated by IAEA member states and the AUKUS partners.

About AUKUS:

• It is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, announced in 2021 for the Indo-Pacific region.
• To transfer technology to build a fleet of at least eight nuclear-powered submarines armed with conventional weapons.
• The pact is also seen as a deterrence to China’s aggression in the Pacific region.
• The pact also includes cooperation on advanced cyber, artificial intelligence and autonomy, quantum technologies, undersea capabilities, hypersonic and counter-hypersonic, electronic warfare, innovation and information sharing.
• It complements several pre-existing similar arrangements for the region like Five Eyes intelligence cooperation initiative, ASEAN and the Quad.

Significance of AUKUS:

• AUKUS aims to ensure that there will be freedom and openness in the Indo-Pacific region, including the South China Sea.
• Although no explicit mention was made of China in any of the AUKUS announcements, this group challenges the regional hegemonic ambitions of China.
• The operationalisation of this security partnership led to closer coordination among the nations concerned in terms of joint military presence, war games and more in the region.
• Given the inroads that China has made in recent decades with its Belt and Road Initiative in India’s neighbourhood, fears over ‘encirclement’ of India by China may be partially mitigated by AUKUS.
• Further, India may indeed derive secondary benefits from having three advanced nations with arguably the most sophisticated military know-how in the world coming together.

Concerns about AUKUS:

• China’s opposition: China argues that the initiative violated the Non-Proliferation Treaty. China also criticised IAEA’s role in this regard. However, the AUKUS partners and the IAEA say the NPT allows marine nuclear propulsion provided necessary arrangements are made with the IAEA.
• Australia’s domestic challenges: As per Australia’s 1984 nuclear-free zone policy, nuclear-powered submarines would not be allowed into the former’s territorial waters. Hence, there is a political opposition to it
• Upset France: Australia had struck a deal with France for $90 billion worth of conventional submarines, which stands cancelled now. This has upset political leadership in France.
• Upset New Zealand: Criticised for not involving New Zealand, an important strategic ally in the Pacific region, possibly because of the country’s nuclear-free policy
• Battleground: The Indo-Pacific region will emerge as the new geopolitical battle ground posing greater security risk to others.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):

• Widely known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace and Development” organization within the United Nations family, the IAEA is the international centre for cooperation in the nuclear field towards.
• The IAEA was created in 1957 in response to the deep fears and expectations generated by the discoveries and diverse uses of nuclear technology.
• It reports annually to the United Nation General Assembly.
• Headquarter: Vienna, Austria.

Objectives and Functions:

• The Agency works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.
• IAEA seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
• When necessary, the IAEA also reports to the UN Security Council in regards to instances of members’ non-compliance with safeguards and security obligations.
• In 2005, it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their work for a safe and peaceful world.

Light Combat Helicopter Inducted Into Air Force

Recently, the first batch of indigenously developed multi-role Light Combat Helicopters (LCH), Prachand, was inducted into the Indian Air Force’s 143 Helicopter Unit at the Jodhpur Air Force Station.

• The helicopters can conduct counter-insurgency operations and can destroy enemy air defense, making them appropriate for use in high-altitude battle zones.
• India is becoming the seventh nation to produce its own assault helicopters as a result.

About the Light Combat Helicopter

• The light combat helicopter is a dedicated combat helicopter designed and developed indigenously in India, manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
• The light combat helicopter is the only combat helicopter in the world that can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 meters (16400 ft) with a considerable load of weapons and fuel, meeting the unique requirements of the Indian Armed Forces.
• The helicopter’s radar signal is reduced through the use of radar-absorbing material, and its construction and landing gear are substantially more crash-proof.
• The helicopter has a mechanism for deploying countermeasures that shields it from hostile radars and infrared missile seekers.
• Among the weaponry systems included are air-to-air missile systems, 70 mm rockets, and a 20 mm turret cannon.
• LCH is powered by two French-origin Shakti engines manufactured by the HAL.
• The LCH can carry out combat operations such crippling an opponent’s air defence, engaging in counterinsurgency warfare, combat search and rescue, and carrying out anti-tank and anti-surface force operations thanks to these features.
• The helicopter can be used to support ground forces, conduct high-altitude bunker-busting operations, and conduct counterinsurgency operations in jungles and urban areas.
• The helicopter can also be used to take out enemy remotely piloted aircraft (RPAs) and stationary aircraft.

Significance

• High altitude combat: The induction of the chopper comes at a time India and China are locked in a military stand-off in certain friction points in eastern Ladakh. It is the only combat helicopter in the world that can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 meters (16400 ft).
• Exporter of arms: For export to nations like Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Angola, Egypt, Indonesia, Ecuador, and Nigeria, the HAL already has a certificate from the Ministry of Defense stating that there are no objections.
• Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan:Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan is anticipated to receive more traction as a result of LCH’s introduction to the Indian Air Force.
• The government is promoting domestic defence equipment design, development, and production through the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan in order to decrease imports.

Background

• During the 1999 Kargil war, the need was first felt for a homegrown lightweight assault helicopter that could hold precision strikes in all Indian battlefield scenarios.
• This called for a craft that could function in combat situations ranging from full-scale battles to counterinsurgency operations in extremely hot deserts and extremely cold high altitudes.
• The Chetak and Cheetah helicopters, produced in India by HAL, are in use in the sub-3 tonne category and are French-made legacy aircraft.
• The majority of these single-engine vehicles were utility helicopters.
• The Lancer, an armoured Cheetah, is also used by Indian troops.
• Additionally, the Mi-17, which has a maximum takeoff weight of 13 tonnes, and its derivatives Mi-17 IV and Mi-17 V5 are currently operated by the Indian Air Force but will be phased out starting in 2028.
• But a more manoeuvrable, multi-purpose attack helicopter was needed. The LCH project was approved by the government in October 2006 after early discussion, and HAL was given the duty of developing it.
• The project was started by the Rotary Wing Research and Development Center of HAL, which had previously developed on the Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) Dhruva and its weaponized variant, the ALH Rudra.
• For the IAF model and the Army variant, the initial operational clearance occurred in 2017 and 2019, respectively. In August 2020, the MoD added LCH to the items under import embargo.. The LCH was symbolically transferred to the Indian Air Force by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in November 2021, opening the route for its final induction.
• The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) approved the purchase of 15 LCH Limited Series Production (LSP) aircraft in March of this year for a total cost of Rs 3,887 crore. This purchase also included infrastructure sanctions of Rs 377 crore.

Way Ahead

• According to HAL, there is a projected requirement of 160 LCHs — 65 for IAF and 95 for the Indian Army.
• In order to build the remaining 145 LCHs in eight years from the signing of the Series Production order, HAL has stated that it has created a precise masterplan for achieving the peak rate production capacity of 30 helicopters per year.
• On September 29 in Bangalore, the LCH was formally inducted into the Army, and on September 30 in Jodhpur, into the Indian Air Force.

Carbon pricing mechanism

2021 Conference of Parties 26 (COP26) propelled nations to ramp up their climate targets and the concomitant Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions(GHGEs).

•  The updated NDCs and the announced pledges for 2030 remain insufficient and poorly aligned with the targets of the Paris Agreement.
• Actual reduction is estimated to be 7.5%, while the target required is 30% (to limit warming to 2°C) and 55% (to limit global warming within the 1.5°C).

Challenges to mitigating climate change:

• Climate change is a product of both market and policy failure such as fossil fuel subsidies and a distortionary tax system.
• The cost of emitting GHGs is not reflected in the price of goods and services.
• Poor incentives for potential innovators and the inadequacy of public infrastructure, energy networks, and finance have impeded investments in research, development and deployment of clean technology.

Carbon Pricing:

• The idea dates back to 1920 to Arthur Pigou in his book ‘The Economics of Welfare’. A Pigouvian tax on carbon ensures that the cost of emitting GHGs is reflected in the price of the commodity or service.
• It embodies a laissez faire ideology offering a market-friendly mechanism that allows firms and consumers the flexibility to choose between the costs of cutting emissions and the benefits accrued from continuing to emit.
• Carbon pricing is considered a cost-effective measure to internalise the externalities associated with CO2 emissions and maximise emission reduction per dollar at the lowest possible cost.

Approaches to carbon tax pricing:

• Abatement approach— It is the marginal cost of reducing each additional unit of emission and is contingent on various factors including the pace of low carbon technological innovation, cost of compliance, as well as the ability of firms and consumers to substitute low-carbon products for high-carbon ones. Carbon pricing mechanisms are predicated on the basis that profit-making firms will continue to cut emissions to the point where the marginal abatement cost is lower than the social cost of carbon.
• Revenue approach – where the tax rate is based on the revenue considerations of the regulating authority or by simply following a benchmarking approach where the tax rate is linked with the rate in neighbouring jurisdictions, among trading partners or competitors.
• International Crediting Mechanisms/ Baseline and Credit system – According to Kyoto Protocol, industrialised Annex B countries can purchase certified emission reduction (CER) credits from developing countries (each credit equivalent to one tonne of CO2).
• The Clean Development Mechanism – is the international standardised emissions offset instrument governed by the UNFCCC to facilitate the trade on the global scale.
• Internal Carbon Prices – It is being used voluntarily by companies and organisations to safeguard against future shocks, climate related risks and prospective government regulations. It is commonly done via shadow carbon pricing where a hypothetical carbon cost is associated with each ton of CO2 emissions.

Implicit carbon pricing:

• Do not directly put a price on emitting carbon but set uniform performance standards for GHG abatement.
• Command-and-Control Regulations – employs technology and performance-based standards to control emission levels and protect environment quality.
• Clean Energy Standards (CES) – is a market-based and technology-neutral approach to encourage the power sector to switch to non- or low-emitting sources of energy.
• Eliminating Fossil Fuel Subsidies – gradual elimination of fossil fuel subsidies can be an effective way to achieve an optimal price for the fuel as well as provide incentives for energy efficiency and fuel-switching technologies.

Explicit carbon pricing:

• It is usually mandated by the government.
• It acts as a market signal for producers and consumers to move towards cleaner sources of production.
• These can be achieved through carbon taxes and/or an ETS (emission trading system)
• Carbon tax – A carbon tax imposes a fixed price on carbon emissions while the quantity of emission reduction is left to the market forces. The objective is to increase the cost of fossil fuel and provide an incentive for investments in fuel-switching strategies and energy-efficient technologies.
• Emission Trading System (ETS) – In a cap-and-trade model, the government sets a limit (cap) on quantity of permissible emissions. While the quantity/volume of emissions is regulated, the price is determined by the market.

Global Carbon Pricing Mechanisms:

• Globally, 68 carbon pricing instruments (CPIs) are operating including countries like Chile, Switzerland, New Zealand, China, European Union etc.

Carbon pricing in India:

• In the case of India, the relevance of carbon markets has been underlined by the recent Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022 which is momentous in its scope, empowering the government to establish a carbon credit trading scheme and laying the ground for a formal carbon market that can be instrumental in India’s pathway towards a net-zero economy by 2070.
• PAT scheme – introduced in 2012, it is the flagship programme of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
• Energy-intensive industrial production units, called “designated consumers” (DC) are allotted Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) reduction targets over a cycle of three years.
• The units that exceed the targets are awarded Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), each equal to one metric tonne of oil.
• DCs that are unable to meet these targets can purchase the difference in ESCerts from the units that have exceeded their targets.
• The ESCerts can be traded on two power exchanges, namely, Power Exchange Indian Limited (PXIL) and Indian Energy Exchange (IEX)
• Emission trading scheme on an air pollutant – This is an innovative emission trading scheme on respiratory solid particulate matter(RSPM), the first particulate trading system in the world.
• The scheme has been piloted in Gujrat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
• Pollution targets are set for areas based on ambient air quality standards and permits are allocated which can be traded, after verification, based on the gains and shortfalls from compliance.
• The scheme relies on a continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS) for setting the baseline and verification purposes.
• CEMs is an intrinsic element in the scheme’s design as it provides real-time information and helps avoid issues pertaining to spot checking and/or spurious reporting by third party auditors.
• Carbon Cess – Introduced in 2010, levied on coal, lignite, and peat in the form of an excise duty.
• With the introduction of the GST Compensation Cess, the carbon cess was abolished .
• CO2 emitting products such as coal, kerosene, naphtha, lubes and LPG are included in GST with exceptions for five petroleum products, i.e., petrol, diesel, natural gas, ATF and crude oil. These are instead subjected to excise duties and VAT.
• Concern: The tax rates do not correspond with the carbon footprint of the fuels and thus fail to provide the right price signals to producers and consumers to reduce consumption and switch to low carbon-emitting sources of energy
• Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) and Renewable Energy Certificates (REC)
• Electricity DISCOMS, open access consumers and captive power producers have to purchase a percentage of their electricity from renewable energy (RE) sources.
• These are termed as renewable purchase obligations (RPO) and are mandated by the Electricity Act (2003).
• The State Electricity Regulatory Commission is responsible for fixing the minimum RPO for each state.
• Obligated entities can purchase RECs on the national energy exchanges to meet their RPO targets without actual procurement of RE-generated power.
• It overcomes geographical disparity in renewable energy production and incentivising electricity generation from RE sources beyond the RPO state limits.
• Concern: The enforcement and compliance with RPO remains weak and is a persisting obstacle to India’s ambitions of expanding renewable energy production and procurement
• Excise taxes on Diesel and Petrol –
• As of May 2020, India had the highest taxes on petrol and diesel in the world.
• Concern: The high taxes are on account of the Centre’s revenue requirements and not environmental considerations and do not account for the carbon footprint of the fuels.

Significance of Carbon pricing:

• Putting a price on carbon internalises the social cost of carbon, and compels companies to adjust their investment portfolio and production methods while encouraging consumers to alter behavioural patterns.
• A carbon price is deemed as an effective tool to incentivise future investment, consumption and innovation towards sustainable and climate-friendly pathways, and support a sustainable pandemic recovery. In 2021, approximately USD 84 billion was recorded in carbon pricing revenue, as a result of higher carbon prices, increased auctioning from emissions trading, and revenue from new instruments.
• Moreover, carbon pricing can be a useful fiscal tool and a prominent source of augmenting government revenues.
• Typical carbon pricing policies allocate government revenues in three ways: investment in climate-related clean technologies, general budget, and income tax cuts or rebates.
• Investments in sustainable industries can generate jobs three times of the full-time jobs from government spending in fossil fuels.
• In the context of developing economies, these investments become particularly critical for supporting vulnerable sectors and communities to adapt to climate change and achieve just transitions.
• Pre-emptively, designing effective domestic climate policies inclusive of carbon pricing mechanisms—such as the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism—can also help offset the implications of border tariffs.
• The revenues generated from selling allowance certificates will augment fiscal revenues and can be used to reduce distortionary taxes or finance investments in clean-tech programs.

Suggestions:

• For trading purposes, the ESCerts should be converted into carbon-denominated allowances based on carbon intensity benchmarks.
• Deploying price containment measures in the ETS design can help incorporate greater flexibility and price predictability such as establishing a price corridor, i.e., introducing a price floor and a price ceiling,
• In order to contain price volatility – have a Cost Containment Reserve (CCR) which allows the regulator to release a fixed additional supply of allowances if the sale of CO2 allowance prices exceeds a certain price threshold, also called the trigger price,
• Banking and borrowing unused emissions as well as the use of offsets which allows regulated businesses to buy emissions reduction credits from outside the market, can help provide greater flexibility to business owners.

Way forward

• Careful planning is essential using rigorous quantitative modelling and analysis from the data collected via the pilot projects.
• Both the GST regime and the PAT scheme provide a well-functioning machinery which India can leverage to build upon a strong carbon pricing framework using a combination of both a carbon tax and an emission trading system.
• In the context of India, it can help meet its ambitious current and future climate goals, offer emission reduction at the lowest possible cost, and accelerate progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• Global climate policy groups have been debating the inception of a Climate Club, seeking to establish an international target carbon price (incremental in nature),
• The current G20 Troika, led by three developing countries – Indonesia, India and Brazil, presents a unique and apposite moment to push forward a global carbon pricing framework built with a redistributive mechanism
• The principles of Common but Differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) and the Just Transition Declaration, climate policy architecture and designing domestic carbon policies will hold India in good stead in an increasingly decarbonising future.